Present and Future of Dyslipidaemia Treatment-A Review.

One of the greatest burdens on the healthcare systems of modern civilization is cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Therefore, the medical community is looking for ways to reduce the incidence of CVDs. Simple lifestyle changes from an unhealthy to a healthy lifestyle are the cornerstone of prevention, but other risk factors for cardiovascular disease are also being currently targeted, most notably dyslipidaemia. It is well known that lowering serum lipid levels, and in particular lowering elevated LDL-cholesterol, leads to a reduction in major cardiovascular events. Although the focus to date has been on LDL-cholesterol levels and lowering them with statin therapy, this is often not enough because of increased concentrations of other lipoprotein particles in the serum and residual cardiovascular risk. Since lowering LDL-cholesterol levels is successful in most cases, there has been a recent focus on lowering residual cardiovascular risk. In recent years, new therapeutic options have emerged that target triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, lipoprotein (a) and apolipoproteins C and B. The effects of these drugs on serious adverse cardiovascular events are not yet known, but recent studies with some of these drugs have shown significant results in lowering total lipid levels. The aim of this review is to present the current therapeutic options for the treatment of dyslipidaemia and to describe the newly approved drugs as well as the drugs that are still in development. Although at this stage we cannot say with certainty whether these agents will be approved and widely used, it is safe to say that our views on the treatment of dyslipidaemia are certainly changing.

New Therapeutic Approaches in Treatment of Dyslipidaemia-A Narrative Review.

Dyslipidaemia is a well-known risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease, a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in developed countries. As a consequence, the medical community has been dealing with this problem for decades, and traditional statin therapy remains the cornerstone therapeutic approach. However, clinical trials have observed remarkable results for a few agents effective in the treatment of elevated serum lipid levels. Ezetimibe showed good but limited results when used in combination with statins. Bempedoic acid has been thoroughly studied in multiple clinical trials, with a reduction in LDL cholesterol by approximately 15%. The first approved monoclonal antibodies for the treatment of dyslipidaemia, PCSK9 inhibitors, are currently used as second-line treatment for patients with unregulated lipid levels on statin or statin combination therapy. A new siRNA molecule, inclisiran, demonstrates great potential, particularly concerning compliance, as it is administered twice yearly and pelacarsen, an antisense oligonucleotide that targets lipoprotein(a) and lowers its levels. Volanesorsen is the first drug that was designed to target chylomicrons and lower triglyceride levels, and olezarsen, the next in-line chylomicron lowering agent, is currently being researched. The newest possibilities for the treatment of dyslipidaemia are ANGPTL3 inhibitors with evinacumab, already approved by the FDA, and EMA for the treatment of familial hypercholesterolemia. This article provides a short summary of new agents currently used or being developed for lipid lowering treatment.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Inclisiran: A Small Interfering Ribonucleic Acid Molecule Targeting PCSK9-A Narrative Review.

As dyslipidemias remain one of the main risk factors for developing cardiovascular disease, the question of maintaining optimal lipid levels with pharmacotherapy remains a subject of interest worldwide. In contrast to conventional pharmacotherapy, human monoclonal antibodies directed against proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PSCK9) and small interfering RNA- (siRNA-) based drug targeting PCSK9 represent a new strategy for managing lipid disorders and reducing cardiovascular risk. Inclisiran is a long-acting, synthetic siRNA that targets hepatic production of PCSK9 and consequently causes a reduction in LDL-C concentrations by approximately 50% compared to placebo. The structural modification of inclisiran has led to better stability and prolonged biological activity of the drug. The main advantage over conventional pharmacotherapy and anti-PCSK9 monoclonal antibodies is its favorable administration regimen (0-90-180 days), which should lead to much better compliance. Clinical trials conducted so far have confirmed the tolerability and efficacy of inclisiran in long-term PCSK9 and LDL-C level reductions. Moreover, a short-term follow-up on the safety of inclisiran showed a relatively good safety profile of the drug. However, it is still of great importance for ongoing and forthcoming clinical trials to be continued on a larger group of patients in order to assess long-term tolerability, efficacy, and safety of inclisiran.

Loss of function polymorphisms in SLCO1B1 (c.521T>C, rs4149056) and ABCG2 (c.421C>A, rs2231142) genes are associated with adverse events of rosuvastatin: a case-control study.

PURPOSE: The study aims to evaluate relationship between polymorphisms associated with a reduced function of two transporter proteins resulting in increased exposure to rosuvastatin - organic anion transporter 1B1 (OATP1B1) (SLCO1B1 c.521T>C) and ATP binding cassette subfamily G member 2 (ABCG2) (ABCG2 c.421C>A) and occurrence of rosuvastatin related myotoxicity/hepatotoxicity. METHODS: In a case-control study, cases (rosuvastatin treated patients developing myotoxicity or hepatotoxicity) and controls (concurrent rosuvastatin treated patients free of adverse events) were prospectively recruited over a 2 year period in a single tertiary center specialized in treatment of metabolic disorders. Subjects were evaluated for clinical, comorbidity, and comedication characteristics and for genotype predicted metabolizing phenotypes regarding cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2C9 and CYP2C19. Standard regression analysis and analysis in matched sets of cases and controls (optimal full matching) were undertaken by fitting frequentist and Bayesian models (covariates/matching variables: age, sex, diabetes, liver/renal disease, hypertension, CYP2C9 and C19 phenotype, use of CYP or transporter inhibitors, non evaluated transporter genotype). RESULTS: A total of 88 cases (81 with myotoxicity, 6 with hepatotoxicity, 1 with both) and 129 controls were recruited. Odds of variant SLCO1B1 c.521T>C allele were 2.2-2.5 times higher in cases than in controls (OR = 2.45, 95% CI 1.34-4.48; Bayesian OR = 2.59, 95% CrI 1.42-4.90 in regression analysis; OR = 2.20, 1.10-4.42; Bayesian OR = 2.26, 1.28-4.41 in matched analysis). Odds of variant ABCG2 c.421C>A allele were 2.1-2.3 times higher in cases than in controls (OR = 2.24, 1.04-4.83; Bayesian OR = 2.35, 1.09-4.31 in regression analysis; OR = 2.10, 0.83-5.31; Bayesian OR = 2.17, 1.07-4.35 in matched analysis). CONCLUSION: Loss of function polymorphisms in SLCO1B1 c.521T>C and ABCG2 c.421C>A genes are associated with the presence of rosuvastatin related myotoxicity and/or hepatotoxicity.

Prophylactic therapeutic plasma exchange in pregnant woman with Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome - A case report.

CONTEXT: Familial Chylomicronemia Syndrome (FCS) is an inherited disease where lack of lipoprotein lipase results in severe hypertriglyceridemia that frequently leads to recurrent acute pancreatitis. Pregnancy in patients with familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS) post a risk for mother and baby with potential complications (pancreatitis, miscarriage and death). Therapeutic approach includes strict dietary measures and plasma exchange. Despite the development of new drugs for FCS, their safety in pregnancy has not yet been confirmed. CASE DESCRIPTION: We present a case of a young, pregnant female with FCS who had miscarriage in the past during one episode of acute pancreatitis. Due to the inability to achieve lower TG levels with current therapy, from 27-th week of pregnancy we have started prophylactic therapeutic plasma exchange (two times per week). Patient was followed up until the delivery of a healthy baby boy and did not experience an episode of acute pancreatitis. CONCLUSIONS: With adequate supervision and monitoring therapeutic plasma exchange represents a safe approach in pregnant women with FCS in order to reduce TGs and prevent pancreatitis. Therefore, we prevented potential complications for both mother and child.

Use of pharmacogenomics in elderly patients treated for cardiovascular diseases.

Older people are increasingly susceptible to adverse drug reactions (ADRs) or therapeutic failure. This could be mediated by considerable polypharmacy, which increases the possibility of drug-drug and drug-gene interactions. Precision medicine, based on individual genetic variations, enables the screening of patients at risk for ADRs and the implementation of personalized treatment regimens. It combines genetic and genomic data with environmental and clinical factors in order to tailor prevention and disease-management strategies, including pharmacotherapy. The identification of genetic factors that influence drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and action at the drug target level allows individualized therapy. Positive pharmacogenomic findings have been reported for the majority of cardiovascular drugs (CVD), suggesting that pre-emptive testing can improve efficacy and minimize the toxicity risk. Gene variants related to drug metabolism and transport variability or pharmacodynamics of major CVD have been translated into dosing recommendations. Pharmacogenetics consortia have issued guidelines for oral anticoagulants, antiplatelet agents, statins, and some beta-blockers. Since the majority of pharmacogenetics recommendations are based on the assessment of single drug-gene interactions, it is imperative to develop tools for the prediction of multiple drug-drug-gene interactions, which are common in the elderly with comorbidity. The availability of genomic testing has grown, but its clinical application is still insufficient.

Resolving Issues About Efficacy and Safety of Low-Dose Codeine in Combination Analgesic Drugs: A Systematic Review.

INTRODUCTION: The objective of this systematic review is to reflect on assumptions in relation to codeine use in combination with other analgesics. METHODS: MEDLINE was searched according to the predetermined keywords and criteria. Only English language studies were taken into consideration and the outcome data of the final studies were extracted by two reviewers independently from each other and were checked by the third reviewer. Additionally, the available codeine-related Individual Case Safety Reports (ICSRs) retrieved from EudraVigilance were reviewed. RESULTS: Sixteen placebo-controlled studies that involved 3378 subjects suffering from acute pain were analyzed for the efficacy of low-dose codeine (≤ 30 mg) combination products. Twelve of them found low-dose codeine combinations more efficient in relieving pain than the assigned comparator. According to 20 randomized clinical trials which included at least one dose of codeine (from 30 to 240 mg daily), the vast majority of reported side-effects were mild or moderate in severity. A total of 20 ICSRs for dependence were identified in the EudraVigilance database with codeine as a suspect drug for the 10-year time period for the European region. CONCLUSIONS: Low-dose codeine combinations are effective after a single application in treating acute pain. Codeine in doses ≤ 30 mg and higher was considered safe since only mild to moderate side-effects were observed. There is no indication in the available sources which clearly links low doses of codeine to substance use disorder in non-dependent subjects.

Impact of aminoglycoside cycling in six tertiary intensive care units: prospective longitudinal interventional study.

AIM: To determine the effect of aminoglycoside cycling in six tertiary intensive care units (ICU) on the rates of sepsis, aminoglycoside resistance patterns, antibiotic consumption, and costs. METHODS: This was a prospective longitudinal interventional study that measured the effect of change from first-line gentamicin usage (February 2002-February 2003) to amikacin usage (February 2003-February 2004) on the aminoglycoside resistance patterns, number of patients with gram-negative bacteremia, consumption of antibiotics, and the cost of antimicrobial drugs in 6 tertiary care ICUs in Zagreb, Croatia. RESULTS: The change from first-line gentamicin to amikacin usage led to a decrease in the overall gentamicin resistance of gram-negative bacteria (GNB) from 42% to 26% (P<0.001; z-test of proportions) and netilmicin resistance from 33% to 20% (P<0.001), but amikacin resistance did not change significantly (P=0.462), except for Acinetobacter baumanni (P=0.014). Sepsis rate in ICUs was reduced from 3.6% to 2.2% (P<0.001; chi(2) test), with a decline in the number of nosocomial bloodstream infections from 55/100 patient-days to 26/100 patient-days (P=0.001, chi(2) test). Furthermore, amikacin use led to a 16% decrease in the overall antibiotic consumption and 0.1 euro/patient/d cost reduction. CONCLUSION: Exclusive use of amikacin significantly reduced the resistance of GNB isolates to gentamicin and netilmicin, the number of GNB nosocomial bacteremias, and the cost of total antibiotic usage in ICUs.

Use of gastroprotective agents in recommended doses in hospitalized patients receiving NSAIDs: a drug utilization study.

OBJECTIVE: In recent years, studies investigated to what extend recommendations for co-prescribing gastroprotective agents in prevention of NSAID-induced gastrointestinal complications are followed in clinical practice. However, only a few studies have also taken into consideration the recommended dose of gastroprotectives prescribed in NSAID-induced ulcer prophylaxis. The aim of our study was to evaluate the prevalence of concomitant use of gastroprotectives with NSAIDs in hospitalized patients, with emphasis on the recommended dose of gastroprotectives for ulcer prophylaxis. METHOD: This observational, cross-sectional, drug utilization study included all adult patients receiving NSAIDs hospitalized in the Clinical Hospital Center Zagreb on the day of the study. Data on age, sex, comorbidities, indications for NSAID use, type/dose of NSAIDs and gastroprotectives, history of gastrointestinal events, active gastrointestinal symptoms and risk factors were evaluated. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Study outcomes were: (1) prevalence of prescription of gastroprotectives among NSAID-users at risk; (2) prevalence of prescription of gastroprotective in recommended dose; (3) association between risk factors and prescription of GPAs. RESULTS: The rates of gastroprotectives prescription were significantly higher in NSAID-users with concomitant risk factors as compared to patients without risk factors [47/70 (67.1%) and 8/22 (36.4%), respectively; p=0.01072]. However, gastroprotection in recommended ulcer-preventive dose was low in both groups [8/70 (11.4%) and 9/92 (9.8%), respectively]. The number of concomitant risk factors did not increase the odds of receiving anti-ulcer therapy (odds ratio 0.7279). Thirty-three percent of patients with concomitant risk factors were not prescribed gastroprotectives. Ibuprofen, NSAID with the lowest risk of inducing gastrointestinal complications, was prescribed in only two patients. CONCLUSION: The results indicate high awareness among hospital physicians about possible NSAID-induced gastrointestinal complications, but insufficient knowledge about risk factors related to NSAID-induced gastrointestinal toxicity, recommended dose of gastroprotectives in NSAID-induced ulcer prophylaxis and gastrointestinal toxicity of different types of NSAIDs.

[Evaluation of justification for antibiotic use at the Internal Medicine Clinic of the Clinical Hospital in Zagreb]. / Procjena opravdanosti potrosnje antibiotika u Klinici za unutrasnje bolesti Klinickog bolnickog centra Zagreb.

OBJECTIVE: Resistance to antimicrobials as the result of unnecessary and inadequate use of antibiotics has become a global health problem. It is estimated that up to 50% of antimicrobials are used unnecessarily, and that they are the cause of approximately 25% of adverse drug reactions. Efforts are made to ensure a controlled use of antibiotics, which is the key strategy against development of resistance to antimicrobials. Since antimicrobial drugs are among the most commonly prescribed drugs in hospitals, a rational use of antibiotics would also help reduce health care costs. There are limited data on the use of antibiotics in Croatian hospitals. METHODS: This observational study was conducted at the University Department of Medicine, Zagreb University Hospital Center, with the aim to investigate the prevalence of antimicrobial use, indications for antibiotic use, and the necessity and adequacy of antibiotic therapy. The investigated parameters were: prescribed antibiotic (dose, route of administration, duration of therapy), indication for use of antibiotics (prophylaxis, treatment), diagnosis, presence of positive culture, indication documented in medical records, evaluation of antibiotic therapy by a specialist, and risk factors. The most important parameter in the evaluation of the necessity of antimicrobial use was the presence of culture days of treatment, and indication for treatment documented in medical records and evaluated by a specialist. The data were collected over 1 day using a standardized questionnaire. RESULTS: Fifty of 138 (37%) hospitalized patients were receiving 1 or more antibiotics, most of them (80%) for the treatment of infection. The most frequent diagnoses were sepsis (64%), urinary tract infection (25%), abdominal infection (21%), and pulmonary infection (7%). The median therapy duration was 4 days (minimum 1 day, maximum 121 days). The most frequently prescribed antibiotics were fluoroquinolones (23%), penicillins (23%), aminoglycosides (18%) and cephalosporins (11%). Thirty-nine patients received one or more reserve antibiotics. The median number of received antibiotics was 2 (minimum 1, maximum 5 antibiotics). Risk factors were present in 76% of patients. Fifty-nine percent patients were receiving antibiotics on the basis of culture; in most of them therapy was evaluated by a specialist (98%) and the indication was documented in medical records. Reserve antibiotics were prescribed in 34 patients, in 77% of them on the basis of positive culture. CONCLUSION: The high prescription rate of antibiotics (fluoroquinolones), concomitant use of antibiotics of a similar spectrum of activity and lack of sequential therapy emerged to be the parameters needing further evaluation. Other investigated parameters (number of antibiotics, duration of therapy, necessity of antibiotic therapy) were in accordance with similar studies conducted in hospitals. Further investigation with emphasis on local problems and prescription habits with the aim to optimize the use of antibiotics is needed.